The Intersection of Language Learning and ADHD: A Literature Review 

Abstract

This literature review references existing research from 2006 to present which addresses the question: Does a student with ADHD have a harder time learning English in school? It includes research that does not specifically relate to English learning, but language learning in general. The findings are mixed, with some studies identifying differences between the learning ability and proficiency of ADHD learners and their peers. That said, there appears to be a tentative consensus that ADHD on its own does not inhibit one’s ability to learn new languages. Due to the high rates of comorbidity with additional disorders and disabilities, such as anxiety, dyslexia, and language impairment, there may be a range of learning experiences for individuals with ADHD who are learning an additional language.

Introduction

Oftentimes teachers and parents begin to see possible signs of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder at an early age. The DSM-V defines ADHD as, “a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development, as characterized by [inattention] and/or [hyperactivity and impulsivity]” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Many in the school system advise waiting until third grade for an evaluation, to give children a chance to mature, but in some cases children undergo an evaluation and diagnosis process at a younger age. As a third and fourth grade teacher, I often receive students who have recently been diagnosed with ADHD, or who will go on to be diagnosed with ADHD during their two years with me. As such, I was interested to learn more about the intersection of ADHD and language learners or emerging multilingual students. Specifically, I set out to answer the following questions: Does a student with ADHD have a harder time learning English in school? Conversely, does an English language learner have a harder time managing their ADHD? 

In examining the existing research, I was surprised to find a lack of abundance. Indeed, I found no recent, peer-reviewed articles at all that addressed my second question: does an English language learner have a harder time managing their ADHD? Regarding whether or not a student with ADHD has a harder time learning English in school, I found that the research was somewhat inconclusive, and tended to rely more on inference than scientific evidence. In sharing my findings, I have broken my initial research question into three related questions: 

• Does ADHD impact language learning success? 
• Does ADHD impact language learning experiences?
• What additional factors impact language learning for individuals with ADHD?

Does ADHD Impact Language Learning Success?

Current research suggests that the presence of ADHD does not inhibit one’s ability to learn a new language. That is, there are not conclusive, replicated findings that ADHD on its own impedes the chances that someone can learn a new language. Sparks, Humbach, and Javorsky (2008) concluded, based on their study of 156 students, that although there were some differences in language learning aptitude and proficiency between students with ADHD and students without, “the students classified as ADHD enrolled in L2 courses did not exhibit deficits in language and literacy skills and did not experience difficulty passing L2 courses and fulfilling the L2 requirement despite their disability classification” (p. 32). 

Kaldonek-Crnjakovic (2018) reiterated these findings stating, “ADHD has a great impact on developing all language skills in [an additional language (AL)]” (p. 221). For example, Kaldonek-Crnjakovic (2018) noted that language learners with ADHD have “diverse cognitive and linguistic profiles” (p. 221), and may struggle with certain types of tasks or information that is not taught in a multi-sensory way. Kaldonek-Crnjakovic (2018) also notes that some tasks may take greater effort on the part of a student with ADHD The author found, that “Since writing in AL is less automatic than in the first language, there will be a greater load on the working memory,” (p. 222). Individuals with ADHD tend to have weaker working memory than their neurotypical peers, so it is logical to conclude that any task requiring increased working memory will likely be more challenging for someone with ADHD. Nevertheless, “given the…research findings, it is inconclusive whether individuals with ADHD have specific difficulties in AL learning” (Kaldonek-Crnjakovic, 2018, p. 221). In other words, although there may be additional challenges for language learners with ADHD, they are challenges these individuals are capable of overcoming. 

Most recently, Paling (2020) conducted a study with 86 adult participants to compare the language learning experiences of adult language learners diagnosed with ADHD, as well as adult language learners with no diagnosis of ADHD. In this study, Paling (2020) found that there was no statistically significant difference in the two groups’ ability to understand grammar in or speak the target language. Likewise, she found no statistically significant difference in their ability to listen, read, or write in their target language. 

Does ADHD Impact Language Learning Experiences?

As previously mentioned, Sparks, Humbach, and Javorsky (2008) found that college students with ADHD were able to pass second language courses and exhibited adequate language and literacy skills. Many of the measures they studied showed no notable difference between students without the presence of ADHD, particularly those they classified as “high-achieving” (HA), and students with ADHD. These included L2 proficiency, class tests and quizzes, and decoding and spelling measures. That said, they did find some difference between the HA group and the ADHD group. Their studies found that “the HA group outperformed the ADHD group on three measures” (Sparks, Humbach, and Javorsky, 2008, p. 37) out of a total of eight measures for reading and writing. Additionally, “although the HA and ADHD learners exhibited significant differences on only two measures of L1 literacy and did not differ on the L2 aptitude and L2 proficiency measures, nonetheless, the HA learners achieved higher L2 grades” (Sparks, Humbach, & Javorsky, 2008, p. 40). 

This difference may be explained, at least in part, by Marashi and Dolatdoost (2016) of nearly 600 individuals.This study, which surveyed individuals aged 10-14, measured speaking ability, including oral complexity and fluency. They found that, “there is a significantly negative correlation…between the students’ complexity of speaking and ADHD” (Marashi and Dolatdoost, 2016, p. 112) and, “there is a significantly negative correlation…between the students’ accuracy of speaking and ADHD” (Marashi and Dolatdoost, 2016, p. 113). On the other hand, “there is a significantly positive correlation…between the students’ fluency of speaking and ADHD” (Marashi and Dolatdoost, 2016, p. 113). In other words, they found that students with ADHD spoke with lower complexity and accuracy than their peers, but with greater fluency. 

While Marashi and Dolatdoost do not have data to support causality, they surmise that students with ADHD may “try to use the simplest way to convey their messages so…they [can] focus more on the meaning of the utterances [as opposed to structure] for their working memory is much more limited than that of non-ADHD individuals” (2016, p. 116). Similarly, they suggest that a lack of planning their speaking may lead to increased errors in their oral speech. Because ADHD individuals are spending less time and effort planning their speech, logic follows, they can speak with greater ease and speed. 

Perhaps because of this difficulty with speaking in a second or additional language with accuracy and complexity, students with ADHD report much lower confidence in their speaking ability and lower perceptions of success than their peers (Paling, 2020). Paling’s (2020) study included a survey regarding the language learning experience as well as an assessment of language level. This study found that there were not statistically significant differences in the two groups’ abilities to understand grammar, speak in the target language, or listen, write, and read. Nevertheless, “67% of the ADHD group did not feel confident or had only some confidence in relation to speaking compared to 19% of the control group not feeling confident or with some confidence” (Paling, 2020, p. 5), and 70% of the ADHD group reported that they “experienced silent moments [‘all the time’ or ‘frequently’] when using the language learned…compared to only 47% of the control group” (p. 5). Additionally, “when asked to describe their present level of language knowledge…56% [of the ADHD group responded] either the need for some improvement, for a lot of improvement, or the need to start again, compared with only 7% of the control group” (p. 5). This would seem to suggest that, although the evidence for ADHD significantly negatively impacting an individuals’ ability to learn a new language is inconsistent or inconclusive, the presence of ADHD deeply impacts an individual’s experience of learning a new language

What Additional Factors Impact Language Learning for Individuals with ADHD?

One challenge in attempting to answer the question “Does an English language learner have a harder time managing their ADHD?” was distinguishing between ADHD and other factors in the language learning process. ADHD is a disorder with a high occurrence of comorbidity; “comorbidity of ADHD and other learning difficulties is slightly above 45%; with dyslexia, as the most common specific learning difficulty, the comorbidity is estimated between 15 and 40%” (Kaldonek Crnjakovic, 2018, p. 216). There are multiple studies that focus on language learners who fall within this dual diagnosis, including Tan and Chua’s (2020) small sample size study which focused on using educational software games to aid in English language learning for students with both ADHD and dyslexia. A study with a broader view is Akbasli, Sahin, and Gürel’s (2017) Model to Manage EFL Learners with ADHD and Dyslexia, which indicates a number of approaches to effectively teaching this learner population and explains the research that suggests these approaches are likely to be successful. 

Helland, Posserud, et al. (2012) looked more broadly at language impairment (LI) and reading disorder (RD) in children with ADHD. This study of over 5,500 children, ages 7 to 9 years old, found that “a total of 80.7% of the children in the ADHD + RD group were identified with LI, whereas this was true for 46.0% of the RD group, 42.6% of the ADHD group, and 5.7% of the control group” (Helland, Posserud, et al., 2012, p. 4). As we know, “students with stronger L1 skills achieve higher levels of L2 proficiency and achievement than students with weaker L1 skills” (Sparks, Humbach, Javorsky, 2008, p. 30), so we can safely infer that students with co-occurring ADHD and language impairment will have greater difficulties learning a second language than neurotypical students.

Conclusion

Reading this literature was quite interesting, and gave me a much deeper insight into the language learning experience of individuals with ADHD. I was gratified to learn that it would seem students with ADHD, particularly those who do not have comorbidity with another disorder or disability, are capable of developing proficiency in new languages. That said, I was struck by the deep gap between the actual and perceived achievement of language learners identified by Paling (2020). To me, this suggests that it is more important than normal for teachers of language learners with ADHD to make both their learning and their success explicitly visible. Additional challenges in managing attention and developing a new language do not necessarily mean that an individual will not achieve success, although it may feel that way to them. As educators it may be up to us to help our students believe that this is true.